The guides are broken down by genus, with each having an information page followed by a page of illustrations and a distribution map. Each guide can be downloaded as a PowerPoint presentation (presentations hosted by NBII with permission from the author).
Hymenopterophily: pollination by bees, wasps, or other members of the Hymenoptera Order.
Hymenopterophilous: plants that are pollinated by bees, wasps, or other members of the Hymenoptera Order.
Newcomer May Threaten Native Bumble Bees
Native bumble bees, such as Bombus impatiens, may be threatened by the introduction of non-native bumble bees. Photo David Cappaert.
Bumble bees are important pollinators of temperate zone plants for a number of reasons. First, the bumble bee's dense hairs capture pollen quite well, allowing for efficient transfer among flowers. Second, bumble bees can pollinate some wild and cultivated plants, including commercially grown tomato plants, through sonication (or "buzz pollination"), making pollination more efficient. And third, the bumble bee's ability to tolerate a wide range of temperatures and climate types means that it is available to pollinate when and where other pollinators are not.
The two bumble bee species currently used most extensively for agricultural crop production are Bombus impatiens, a native of North America, and B. terrestris, native to Europe. Though relied upon for pollination of many crops, both species are raised commercially for greenhouse tomato pollination.
Some countries outside the native range of B. terrestris have imported this species for commercial crop pollination. In some of these countries, B. terrestris has become naturalized and has expanded its range. Though B. terrestris has not yet been imported to the United States, Mexico allowed its importation in the 1990s to Jalisco for greenhouse tomato pollination.
Researchers and conservationists have raised concerns about the potential impact of B. terrestris on native pollinators. The non-native bumble bee may introduce new diseases, out-compete native species for resources, or disrupt adaptations of native bees (and co-evolvedplant-pollinator associations) by hybridizing with native bumble bees.
In fact, shortly after Mexico allowed for the importation of B. terrestris, the microsporidian Nosema bombi, an internal parasite that infects bumble bees, was found in shipments of B. terrestris. This prompted an end to Mexico's importation of this species in the 1990s. However, for economic reasons, some agricultural producers and bee suppliers are urging governments in Mexico, the United States, and Canada to allow for importation of B. terrestris.
In a recently released white paper, the North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) calls for an immediate evaluation of B. terrestris effects on native pollinators and ecosystems in Mexico and of its potential threat to native pollinators of neighboring countries. The white paper includes recommendations for policy makers in Mexico, the United States, and Canada to prevent negative consequences and to identify alternatives to the importation of a non-native species into North America.
Pollinating Bees and Wasps: Getting Down to Buzziness
Sweat bees (Agapostemon virescens), attracted to salts in perspiration, are also important pollinators. Photo Susan Ellis.
Bees are the first creatures that come to mind when people think about pollinators and pollination.
The European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is an almost global species. Honey bees (Apis spp.) can be found pollinating plants throughout northern Europe and Africa (honey bees are native on both continents) and they are also common in the Americas where they were introduced by humans during the early colonization of the continents. Honey bees are best known for their role in the production of honey.
In North America, many native bee species, as well as some wasps, are also important pollinators. The bumble bee (Bombus spp.) is among the most important pollinators of temperate zone plants. Other native bee pollinators include mason bees (Osmia spp.), leafcutter bees (Megachile spp.), squash bees (Peponapis spp. and Xenoglossa spp.), long-horned bees (Melissodes spp.), sweat bees (Family:Halictidae), alkali bees (Nomia melanderi), and sunflower bees (Diadasia spp. and Svastra spp.).
Habitat loss and fragmentation threaten many of these beneficial organisms. A decline in nectar-producing flowers is one problem, but a loss of nesting habitat may have more serious consequences for some species.
The Great Sunflower Project sends free packets of sunflower seeds to volunteer monitors across the United States with the goal of understanding bee activity in home and community gardens and their surrounding environments. The Project, led by Gretchen LeBuhn at San Francisco State University, focuses on monitoring honey bees (Apis mellifera), bumble bees (Bombus spp.), carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.), and metallic green bees (Agapostemen spp., Augochlora spp., Augochlorella spp., and Osmia spp.). Members of the public sign up to receive free Lemon Queen sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus), plant them in their own gardens, and then watch and record the bees visiting the sunflowers. Bee counts are entered online or submitted via a paper form. The web site also hosts bee guides, tips for growing sunflowers, and an education forum among others.
All By Myself: Most Bees Live a Solitary Life
Often when we think of bees, we envision a hive with a single queen who lays eggs and worker bees that look after the eggs, as with honey bees and bumble bees. In fact, 85% of bees are solitary - meaning a single female mates with a male and then constructs, provisions, and lays an egg in each cell in a nest by herself. Examples of solitary bees are the hornfaced bee ( Osmia cornifrons ) and the orchard mason bee ( Osmia lignaria ). Solitary bees do not produce honey or wax, are relatively docile and not apt to sting, and are resistant to parasites and diseases of the honey bee. These types of bees live in nests dug underground or placed in hollows in reeds, bamboo, logs, or other materials. Nesting females may make their nests close together forming aggregations with thousands of nests and bees. Common traits of solitary bees that form aggregations are: they are naturally active at the time a crop blooms, favor this crop's flowers, and can reproduce on a diet of nectar and pollen from the crop.
The purpose of this listserve is to disseminate information and foster discussions regarding the inventory and monitoring of bees as well as their identification.
The term "pollen bees" has been in use since 1992 to describe all bees, other than honey bees, that help pollinate crops and wild flowers. Pollen bees also are collectively called native bees, wild bees, and non-Apis bees. Over 20,000 species of pollen bees have been identified worldwide, with over 3,500 occurring in North America. In fact, before honey bees were brought to North America by Europeans, pollen bees were responsible for all pollination done by bees in North America. However, since the 1950's declines in pollen bee populations have made it necessary to supplement bee pollination with the use of introduced honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations. Pollen bee declines have been attributed to pesticide use, habitat loss, irrigation, monoculture crops, and cultivation.
Reference: Diversify With Pollen Bees (Suzanne W. T. Batra, American Bee Journal, Volume 134, No. 9, September, 1994)
Sacrificing For the Good of the Colony
Ants and many bees and wasps are eusocial - meaning they are socially highly organized. Eusocial insects are reproductively specialized, with a reproductive division of labor often involving sterile members caring for the reproductive members. Other defining features of eusociality are overlapping of generations and cooperative care of the young. All ants are eusocial with morphologically different workers and queens. Some bee and wasp species, including honey bees ( Apis mellifera ), carpenter bees ( Xylocopa spp.), bumble bees ( Bombus spp.), paper wasps ( Polistes spp.), and yellowjackets ( Vespula spp.) also exhibit eusociality. Interestingly, humans are also defined as eusocial. (Reference: Social Behavior of Polistine Wasps, Joan E. Strassman, November 8, 2006).
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